Shell Operation in Shell Scripting

Shell Operation in Bash

• The shell (e.g., bash) follows a multi-step process to interpret and execute commands.
• Each command goes through reading, breaking down, expanding, redirecting, and finally execution.

Steps of Command Processing

1. Read Input
   • From terminal (interactive use) or file/script.
   • Reads line by line.
2. Tokenization (Lexical Analysis)
   • Breaks input into words and operators.
   • Follows specific syntax rules.
   • Alias expansion happens at this stage.
3. Parsing / Command Identification
   • Tokens are recognized as:
   • Simple commands (like ls -l)
   • Compound commands (like if, for, pipelines, etc.)
4. Shell Expansions (performed in order):
   • Brace expansion → {a,b,c} → expands to a b c
   • Tilde expansion → ~ → expands to home directory
   • Parameter & variable expansion → $VAR
   • Command substitution → `command` or $(command)
   • Arithmetic expansion → $((2+3)) → 5
   • Process substitution → <(command) or >(command)
   • Word splitting → breaks expanded words into fields
   • Filename expansion (globbing) → *.txt → matches files
5. Quote Removal
   • Removes " ' and ` while preserving meaning.
6. Redirections
   • Handles input/output redirection, e.g. > >> < 2>&1.
7. Execution
   • The command is executed.
   • If required, the shell waits for the command to finish.
   • Exit status ($?) is collected.

Key Points

• Tokenization is the first transformation stage.
• Expansions are ordered; each depends on the result of the previous.
• Redirection happens before execution.
• Exit status is important for scripting (conditional logic).

Shell Tokenization

• Definition: The process of breaking input into tokens (smallest meaningful units).
• A token = sequence of characters treated as a single unit by the shell.

How Tokenization Works

1. Input Source
   • From terminal or a file (script).
2. Meta Characters
   • Special unquoted characters that separate words.
   • List of meta characters:
     • Space ( )
     • Tab (\t)
     • Newline (\n)
     • | & ; ( ) < >
3. Types of Tokens
   • Words: tokens without unquoted meta characters.
   • Operators: tokens containing at least one unquoted meta character.

Note: If quoted, they lose their special meaning.

Operators

1. Control Operators → Perform control functions.
   • Examples: ; & && || | |& ( ) \n
2. Redirection Operators → Redirect input/output.
   • Examples: > >> < << <<< >& <& >|

⚠️ Operators matter only if unquoted.

Alias Expansion

• Aliases are expanded at this step, during tokenization.

Example Walkthrough

Command:

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ls $Home > Home.txt

1. Identify meta characters
   • Only spaces ( ) here.
2. Split into tokens (4 tokens):
   • ls
   • $Home
   • >
   • Home.txt
3. Classify tokens:
   • Words → ls, $Home, Home.txt
   • Operator → > (redirection)
4. Hidden Control Operator:
   • Newline (\n) at the end of the command.

Key Points to Remember

• $ is not a meta character → $Home counts as a word.
• Redirection operators (>, <) do not split commands, but control operators (;, &&, newline) do.
• Tokenization always happens before parsing and expansions.

Shell Command Identification

After Tokenization

• Shell now classifies tokens into simple or compound commands.

Simple Commands

• Definition: Sequence of words separated by spaces, terminated by newline or a control operator.
• Structure:
  • First word → command name.
  • Remaining words → arguments.
• Examples:

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touch a.txt b.txt c.txt

• touch = command name
• a.txt b.txt c.txt = arguments
• Terminated by invisible newline.

⚠️ Important Notes

• If multiple commands are written without control operators, shell may treat them as one simple command.

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touch a.txt b.txt ls

→ Interpreted as touch with args a.txt b.txt ls (not two commands).

• Use a control operator like ; to separate them:

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touch a.txt b.txt ; ls

→ Now touch and ls are two simple commands.

Compound Commands

• Definition: Commands that start and end with reserved words (bash keywords).

• Reserved words examples:

  • if … fi
  • while … done
  • for … do … done
  • case … esac

• Check reserved word:

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   type if      # reserved word
   type elif    # reserved word
   type ls      # normal command

• Features:
  • Can span multiple lines.
  • Contain both simple and compound commands inside.
  • Used for programming constructs: conditions, loops, iterations.

Example:

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if [ -f /etc/passwd ]; then
    tail -n 3 /etc/passwd
fi

• if starts compound command.
• fi ends it.
• Inside: a test + a simple command (tail).

Recap

1. After tokenization → shell does command identification.
2. Simple command = list of words, first word = command name, rest = arguments, terminated by newline/control operator.
3. Compound command = starts & ends with reserved words, represents programming constructs (if, while, for, etc.).
4. Next stage after identification = Shell Expansions.

Shell Expansions

• Expansion happens after tokenization and command identification.
• Definition: Expansion is the procedure of replacing a reference with its actual value.
• Example:

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echo $HOME

• $HOME → expanded into /home/ahmad (actual value).

Types of Expansions (in order)

1. Brace Expansion { }
   • Generates arbitrary strings.
   • Example:

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echo file{1..3}
# file1 file2 file3

2. Tilde Expansion ~
   • Expands to home directories.
   • Example:

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echo ~
# /home/ahmad

3. Parameter and Variable Expansion $VAR
   • Expands variables, parameters, special vars.
   • Example:

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echo $USER

4. Command Substitution $( ) or ` `
   • Runs a command and replaces it with the output.
   • Example:

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echo "Today is $(date)"

5. Arithmetic Expansion $(( ))
   • Evaluates arithmetic expressions.
   • Example:

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echo $((2 + 3))
# 5

6. Process Substitution <( ) , >( )
   • Treats command output/input like a file.
   • Example:

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diff <(ls dir1) <(ls dir2)

7. Word Splitting
   • Splits results of expansion into multiple words (based on $IFS).
   • Example:

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VAR="a b c"
echo $VAR   # a b c

8. Filename Expansion (Globbing)
   • Expands wildcard characters (*, ?, [ ]).
   • Example:

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echo *.txt
# lists all .txt files

After Expansions

• Quote removal is performed.
• This removes quotes " ' ` but keeps the expanded values.

Recap

• Expansions = replace references with values.
• There are 8 types, executed in a strict order.
• Final step after all expansions = quote removal.

Quote Removal in Bash

• Quote removal is performed after shell expansions.

• Purpose: remove the quoting characters that were only used to control interpretation.

• All unquoted occurrences of:

  • Backslash (\)
  • Single quotes (')
  • Double quotes (")

• These are removed if they did not result from an expansion.

Why are quotes/backslashes removed?

• Quotes/backslashes temporarily remove the special meaning of characters.
• Once the shell has interpreted them, they are no longer needed and are removed.

Examples

1. Prevent variable expansion with backslash:

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echo \$USER

Output:

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$USER

• The backslash was removed during quote removal.

2. Printing quotes literally:

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 echo 'single quotes' "Linux in double quotes"

• Single quotes are removed.
• Double quotes remain if they were quoted.

3. Variable containing backslashes:

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dir="C:\Windows\System"
echo $dir

• Backslashes remain.
• Reason: they came from variable expansion, not from quoting.

Key Rule

• Only unquoted backslashes, single quotes, and double quotes are removed,
• and only if they are not generated by an expansion.

Shell Redirections

Command Processing Context

• After quote removal, the last step in command line processing is redirections.
• Redirections control where input comes from and where output goes.

Standard Data Streams

Every shell command has three default streams, identified by numbers (file descriptors):

• 0 → stdin (Standard Input)
  Input to the program (keyboard by default).
• 1 → stdout (Standard Output)
• 2 → stderr (Standard Error)
  Error messages (screen by default).

These numbers (0, 1, 2) are file descriptors opened each time a command runs.

Standard Input Redirection (<)

• Redirects input from a file instead of keyboard.
• Example:

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tail < /etc/group
cat < /etc/passwd

• Many commands that accept a filename as an argument will read from stdin if no file is provided.

Standard Output Redirection (>)

• Redirects command output to a file instead of screen.
• Example:

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ls -l > ls.txt

• Behavior:
  • Creates file if it doesn’t exist.
  • Overwrites file if it already exists.
• Example overwrite:

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ip addr > ls.txt
# overwrites ls.txt, removes previous ls -l output

Append Redirection (>>)

• Appends output to the end of a file instead of overwriting it.
• Example:

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ls -l >> output.txt
ip addr >> output.txt

• Behavior:
  • Creates file if it doesn’t exist.
  • Appends if file exists.

Everything is a File in Linux

• Even terminals are represented as files.
• Check terminal device:

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tty
# Output: /dev/pts/0

• Redirect output to another terminal:

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ip addr > /dev/pts/0

• Result: Output appears in the other terminal window (like basic instant messaging).

Shell Redirections (Part 2: stderr, combining, tee)

File Descriptors Recap

• stdin (0) → standard input
• stdout (1) → standard output
• stderr (2) → standard error

By default:

• > = redirects stdout (fd 1).
• To redirect stderr, you must explicitly specify 2>.

Redirecting Standard Error

• Example command that generates error:

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tail -n3 /etc/shadow

• (normal users cannot read it)

• Redirect stderr:

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tail -n3 /etc/shadow 2> error.txt

• No spaces between 2 and >.

• Creates file if missing, overwrites if exists.

• Append stderr:

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tail -n3 /etc/shadow 2>> error.txt

Redirecting stdout and stderr Separately

• Redirect outputs to different files:

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tail -n2 /etc/passwd /etc/shadow > output.txt 2> errors.txt

• output.txt → normal command output.
• errors.txt → error messages.

Redirecting stdout and stderr to Same File

• Redirect stdout to file, stderr to stdout:

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tail -n2 /etc/passwd /etc/shadow > output_errors.txt 2>&1

• Explanation:
  • 2>&1 → redirect stderr (2) to wherever stdout (1) is going.
  • Ampersand (&) indicates stream reference, not a filename.
  • Without &, it would create a file literally called 1.

Redirections with Pipes

• You can still combine with pipes (|).
• Example: extract MAC address:

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ifconfig | grep ether | cut -d" " -f10 > mac.txt

• cut -d " " -f10 → splits by space, picks 10th field (MAC address).

The tee Command

• Problem: normal redirection saves to file but hides from terminal.
• tee solves this by splitting output (like a plumbing T-junction).

Examples:

1. Save and display:

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ifconfig | grep ether | tee mac.txt

• Displays on screen + saves to mac.txt.

2. Append mode:

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who | tee -a mac.txt

3. Save to multiple files:

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uname -r | tee -a mac.txt kernel.txt

Key Points

• 2> → redirect stderr.
• > defaults to stdout (1).
• 2>&1 → merge stderr into stdout.
• Redirections work with pipes.
• tee → write to file(s) and screen simultaneously.

Bash Redirection & Pipe Cheat Sheet

⚡ Quick Notes:

• File Descriptors (FDs):
  • 0 → stdin
  • 1 → stdout
  • 2 → stderr
• No spaces allowed between FD number and operator:
  ✅ 2> file.txt
  ❌ 2 > file.txt
• Without number: > = 1> (stdout).

Detailed Example, Step-By-Step, How Bash Processes This Command

Example command (from the video), written exactly:

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ls $HOME > $(date +%H_%M).txt

1) Tokenization

• Shell looks for unquoted meta characters (space, tab, newline, and the special symbols), to split the input into tokens.

• In this command there are two unquoted meta characters, space and >.

• Important: the space inside $(date +%H_%M) does not count, because it is inside a command substitution, so it is treated as part of a single token.

• Tokens produced:

  1. ls
  2. $HOME
  3. >
  4. $(date +%H_%M).txt

• Classification, after tokenization:

  • Words (no unquoted meta chars): ls, $HOME, $(date +%H_%M).txt
  • Operator (contains an unquoted meta char): >

• Note: $ is not a meta character, so $HOME remains a single word token.

2) Command identification

• The shell identifies the command type, simple or compound.
• This command is a simple command, because it does not start with a reserved word (if, while, for, etc).
• A simple command is terminated by a control operator or the invisible newline at the end of the line. Here the newline (end of line) terminates the command.
• > is a redirection operator, not a control operator, so it stays part of the same simple command.

3) Expansions (performed in strict order)

Bash runs expansions in this order, only some apply here:

1. Brace expansion
2. Tilde expansion
3. Parameter and variable expansion
4. Command substitution
5. Arithmetic expansion
6. Process substitution
7. Word splitting
8. Filename expansion (globbing)

• In our example, the relevant expansions are:
  • Parameter expansion: $HOME → /home/student (example value)
  • Command substitution: $(date +%H_%M) → 11_16 (example output, hour_minute)
• After those expansions, the command becomes:

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ls /home/student > 11_16.txt

4) Word splitting and filename expansion, then quote removal

• Word splitting: bash will split expansion results into words based on $IFS (by default space, tab, newline), but only for expansions not inside double quotes.
  • In this example, neither expansion produced spaces, so no splitting occurs.
• Filename expansion (globbing): only happens if there are unquoted wildcard characters (* ? [ ]) in the words, none here.
• Quote removal: any remaining unquoted backslashes, single quotes, double quotes that were not produced by expansions are removed. There are none here, so nothing is removed.

5) Redirections

• Shell inspects redirection operators and sets up file descriptors before executing the command.
• Here the single greater-than > is present, so:
  • stdout (fd 1) is redirected to the file 11_16.txt.
  • If 11_16.txt does not exist, bash creates it.
  • If it exists, bash overwrites it (use >> to append instead).
• After setting up the redirection, the command is ready to run.

Execution

• Bash executes ls with argument /home/student.
• The ls output goes to the file 11_16.txt (because stdout was redirected).
• Bash waits for the command to finish, then collects its exit status.

Quick checklist, with the most important rules illustrated by this example

• Meta characters only act when unquoted (spaces inside $(...) are ignored for tokenization).
• $ is not a meta character, it is part of words until parameter expansion runs.
• Command substitution is treated as a single token during tokenization.
• Expansions occur in a fixed order, parameter and command substitution happen before word splitting.
• Word splitting uses $IFS, default is space, tab, newline. If an expansion yields spaces, it can produce extra words.
• > is a redirection operator, not a control operator, so it does not split the command into multiple commands.
• Redirections are applied after expansions and quote removal, before execution. > creates or overwrites, >> appends.
• Invisible newline at end of input acts as the terminating control operator for a simple command.